), cranberries ( Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait ), due to their ability to forage under lower temperatures. Bumble bees are also managed commercially to pollinate cooler climate crops, such as blueberries ( Vaccinium corymbosum L. Superset ), because bumble bee colonies are smaller and annual, and the bees themselves adapt to indoor settings better than honey bees. ), are often used for the pollination of greenhouse crops, such as tomatoes ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. For example, bumble bees ( Bombus impatiens Cresson and B. Many of these wild, unmanaged bees, however, are increasingly being utilized commercially as alternative pollinators for certain crops and/or under more specific environmental conditions. In addition to the services provided by commercially managed honey bees, other species of social and solitary bees are critical for the pollination of ecologically important plants in natural, agricultural, and urban landscapes. Domesticated honey bees ( Apis mellifera L.) play vital roles as the principal providers of food crop pollination, contributing over $15 billion USD in added value. There are roughly 20,000 extant species of bees worldwide and approximately 3,600 species of bees in North American that aid in the pollination of our agricultural crops and native flora. However, there were limited detections of SBV and BQCV in bees collected during both sampling periods, indicating SBV and BQCV may be less prevalent among bee communities in this area. However, IAPV was predominately detected in Halictus ligatus (20.7%) and in late season collections (28.1%), which may suggest species-specific susceptibility and seasonal trends in infection rates associated with different virus types. The higher prevalence of DWV detected across bee species (10.4% on Apis mellifera, 5.3% on Bombus impatiens, 6.1% on Bombus griseocollis, and 22.44% on Halictus ligatus) and seasons (10.8% in early-mid summer and 11.4% in late summer) may indicate a higher risk of interspecific transmission of DWV. Results indicated the prevalence of viruses is significantly affected ( P < 0.005) by bee species, virus type, and season, but not by landscape or year ( P = 0.290 and 0.065 respectively). To explore how viruses spread both intra- and inter-specifically within a community, we examined the impact of management, landscape type, and bee species on the transmission of four common viruses in Nebraska: Deformed wing virus (DWV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), Black queen cell virus (BQCV), and Sacbrood virus (SBV). Viruses, which have been implicated as a key stressor, are able to infect a wide range of species and can be transmitted both intra- and inter-specifically from infected bee species to uninfected bee species via vertical (from parent to offspring) and/or horizontal (between individuals via direct or indirect contact) transmission.
Several stressors cause declining populations of managed and wild bee species such as habitat degradation, pesticide exposure, and pathogens. In recent years, declines in bee populations have highlighted the importance of the pollination services they provide and the need for more research into the reasons for global bee losses. Managed honey bees ( Apis mellifera L.) and wild bees provide critical ecological services that shape and sustain natural, agricultural, and urban landscapes.
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